Star images 55062 du Replica Stunt Puppet, Multi-Colored, 12 inches

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In the Ria Formosa, Portugal, water temperature reaches 27°C in the summer Lagoon system. The observed number of Sepia officinalis infers they can survive high water temperatures (Domingues et al., 2002). Water temperature reached 30°C during the hottest day but no mortality was recorded. However, as temperatures rose in the Cíes Islands, Spain, the probability of finding eggs decreased. Instead, individuals in the Mediterranean prefer a spawning temperature of 12.5 – 14.75°C, similar to that of peak spawning in the English Channel (Guerra et al., 2016b). Beuerlein, K. & Schipp, R., 1998. Cytomorphological aspects on the response of the branchial heart complex of Sepia officinalis L. (Cephalopoda) to xenobiotics and bacterial infection. Tissue and Cell, 30(6), 662-671. It has been estimated that the temperature limits of Sepia officinalis are 10 and 30°C. Below 10°C individuals do not appear to feed and remain inactive until ultimate mortality (Guerra, 2006). Individuals hatched in lower temperatures also have less inner yolk, presumably due to the increase in embryonic development time. This means once hatched the juveniles are under more pressure to gather food (Guerra, 2006). Embryos ceased development when cultured at 9°C. However, when the temperature was raised development continued, which suggested that eggs could almost go into a ‘hibernation’ period under lower temperatures. It is not known how long this period can last for before mortality (Bouchaud & Daguzan, 1990; Challier et al., 2004). Oxygen demand for embryos is also increased at lower temperatures making embryos in colder water more susceptible to hypoxic conditions within the egg sac (Woods, 1999; cited in Lesser, 2013). It has been proposed (John Rundle, personal communication, cited in Tonkins et al., 2015) that dark figures leaning over tanks may be interpreted as predators by captive cuttlefish. This may lead to a defence response such as digging, swimming, and inking. Harms, C.A., Lewbart, G.A., McAlarney, R., Christian, L.S., Geissler, K. & Lemons, C., 2006. Surgical Excision of Mycotic ( Cladosporium sp.) Granulomas from the Mantle of a Cuttlefish ( Sepia officinalis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 37, 524-530.

The ETT has an angle or slant known as a bevel to facilitate placement through the vocal cords and to provide improved visualization ahead of the tip. As the endotracheal tube approaches the cords, the left-facing bevel provides an optimal view. Bettencourt, V. & Guerra, A., 1999. Carbon- and oxygen-isotope composition of the cuttlebone of Sepia officinalis: a tool for predicting ecological information? Marine Biology, 133, 651-657. Gutowska, M.A. & Melzner, F., 2009. Abiotic conditions in cephalopod ( Sepia officinalis) eggs: embryonic development at low pH and high pCO 2. Marine Biology, 156, 515-519.Danis, B., Bustamante, P., Cotret, O., Teyssié, J.L., Fowler, S.W. & Warnau, M., 2005. Bioaccumulation of PCBs in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis from the seawater, sediment and food pathways. Environmental Pollution, 134, 113-122. Some bacteria are not pathogenic but are in fact symbiotic and occur in the accessory rudimental gland in cuttlefish (Grigioni & Boucher-rodoni, 2002). It is thought that these bacteria are responsible for the colour change in the gland from white to bright red/orange which signifies the individual is sexually mature (Grigoni & Boucher-Rodoni, 2002). Sepia officinalis also has naturally occurring Gammaproteobacteria, e.g. Vibrionaceae, in the gills and oesophagus. These bacteria appear to be resilient to the common animal antibiotic enrofloxacin (Lutz et al., 2018).

Häfker, N.S. 2012.Effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia on blood and tissue physiology of the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. Masters thesis.Universtität Bremen. Paulij, W.P., Herman, P.M.J., Roozen, M.E.F. & Denuce, J.M., 1991. The influence of photoperiodicity on hatching of Sepia officinalis. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 71, 665-678. South East Wales Biodiversity Records Centre, 2018. SEWBReC Molluscs (South East Wales). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/jos5ga accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-02. Challier, L., Dunn, M.R., & Robin, J.-P., 2005. Trends in age-at-recruitment and juvenile growth of cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis, from the English Channel. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 62, 1671-1682. Individuals exposed to levels of sound from 139-142 dB centred at 315-400 Hz revealed injuries to the statocyst. Immediately after exposure to the sound, spherical holes were found on the base of the hair cells and in the plasma membrane of the statocyst. After 48 h of sound exposure damageoccurred on the internal epithelium and some hair cells wereeither partially or totally ejected from the sensory epithelium. This could result in permanent physical damage but due to the dissections needed for this study the long-term effects are still unknown (Solé et al., 2017). If the species is disturbed by noise it should swim away when it senses any vibrations. The viability of the species may be reduced if feeding or breeding periods are disrupted.ICES, 1994. Report of the study group on the life history assessment of Cephalopods. Copenhagen-Denmark ICES, K:7, 32.

Bristol Regional Environmental Records Centre, 2017. BRERC species records within last 15 years. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/vntgox accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-25.Sensitivity assessment.Despite showing a behavioural response to light there is no evidence of death due to the effect of an introduction of light from an artificial source. Therefore, a resistance score of ‘ High’ is recorded with ‘low’ confidence. Recoverability is probably ‘ High’ and this species is therefore assessed as ‘ Not Sensitive’ to the induction of light or shading. Guerra, Á., Hernández-Urcera, J., Garci, M.E., Sestelo, M., Regueira, M., Gilcoto, M. & González, Á.F., 2016. Spawning habitat selection by the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalis in the Cíes Islands (Northwest Spain). Fisheries Research, 183, 44-54.

Buresch, K.C., Ulmer, K.M., Akkaynak, D., Allen, J.J., Mäthger, L.M., Nakamura, M. & Hanlon, R.T., 2015. Cuttlefish adjust body pattern intensity with respect to substrate intensity to aid camouflage, but do not camouflage in extremely low light. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 462, 121-126. Tonkins, B.M., Tyers, A.M. & Cooke, G.M., 2015. Cuttlefish in captivity: an investigation into housing and husbandry for improving welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 168, 77-83.Paulij, W.P., Bogaards, R.H. & Denuce, J.M., 1990. Influence of salinity on embryonic development and the distribution of Sepia officinalis in the Delta Area (South Western part of The Netherlands). Marine Biology, 107, 17-23. Cephalopods have a poikilothermic metabolism that rises or falls directly with temperature (Forsythe, 1993; cited inBloor et al., 2013). For example, an increase of 6°C results in a doubling of individual feeding rate (Pascual, 1978). Cuttlefish in the English Channel have lower mitochondrial capabilities compared to subtropical Adriatic species but have larger hearts, which improve their energetic efficiencies. This allows them to extend their thermal tolerance(Oellermann et al., 2012). It has been estimated that the temperature limits of Sepia officinalis are 10 and 30°C (Guerra, 2006).